Nikos A. Salingaros: PAPERS ON ARCHITECTURE, PATTERNS, AND URBANISM.

 

E-mail: salingar@sphere.math.utsa.edu

The most exciting scientific developments of the past decade, such as fractals, complexity theory, evolutionary biology, and artificial intelligence give us an idea of how human beings interact with their environment. Organisms, computer programs, buildings, neighborhoods, and cities share the same general rules governing a complex hierarchical system. All matter -- biological as well as inanimate -- organizes itself into coherent structures. The human mind has evolved in order to adapt to complex patterns in the natural world, so the patterns we perceive around us influence our internal function as human beings.

A new, human-oriented architecture follows ideas by Christopher Alexander, combining the best qualities of traditional architecture with the latest technological and scientific advances. The greatest architecture is complex and coherent; but neither random, nor simplistic. By understanding how to generate "life" in built structures, we can drastically improve the way buildings and cities relate to people. Unfortunately, the universe's wonderfully rich complexity is ignored and suppressed by a contemporary design canon that seeks plainness and a false purity. An anti-scientific philosophy influences our architecture schools, promoting disordered complexity rather than coherent structures.

 

BOOKS

A THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE
An online book in progress, consisting of several of my papers on architecture and design. This book explains the foundations of architectural form using scientific arguments. It is intended to initiate a new approach to building and design.

PRINCIPLES OF URBAN STRUCTURE
An online book in progress, consisting of several of my urban papers. This book is meant to satisfy the needs of professional urbanists who wish to understand how and why cities are successful or not, depending on their form, components, and substructure.

 

RECENT PAPERS

The Laws of Architecture from a Physicist's Perspective
Physics Essays 8 (1995), pages 638-643.
Three architectural laws follow from how matter comes together to form coherent structures; they are satisfied by most buildings in history up to (but excluding) the twentieth century. [Available in LaTeX, DVI and Postscript].

Las Leyes de la Arquitectura desde la Perspectiva de un Físico
Traducción en español de The Laws of Architecture from a Physicist's Perspective. El Hombre y la Máquina, No 16, Abril de 2001, páginas 12-23. También en: La Simetria, Febrero de 2002, approx. 12 páginas.
Por analogía con principios físicos básicos se obtienen tres leyes applicables al orden arquitectónico, que son válidas tanto para las estructuras naturales como para las construidas por el hombre.

Life and Complexity in Architecture From a Thermodynamic Analogy
Physics Essays 10 (1997), pages 165-173.
A visual model estimates the comparative degree of organized complexity (i.e., the "life") of buildings, and contrasts this with their disorganized complexity. Our model permits the classification within a unified scheme of buildings in any style and from any period.

Theory of the Urban Web
Journal of Urban Design 3 (1998), pages 53-71.
A living city depends on an enormous number of different paths, and the evolution of an urban region from "dead" to "alive" is sudden. Dead cities need to become more connected to regain urban vitality. [Earlier version published by RUDI -- Resource for Urban Design Information in 1997].

Kaupunki Verkostona
Finnish translation of Theory of the Urban Web. Tampere University of Technology, Institute of Urban Planning publication No. 33 (2000). [To order a copy, contact Fax 358-3-3653206].

A Scientific Basis for Creating Architectural Forms
Journal of Architectural and Planning Research 15 (1998), pages 283-293.
A scaling rule is proposed for architectural elements, based on the scaling factor e = 2.718, the base for natural logarithms. This determines the optimal way to subdivide forms.

Urban Space and its Information Field
Journal of Urban Design 4 (1999), pages 29-49.
I explain why some urban spaces are used, and others avoided. Urban space is characterized by an information field generated by surrounding surfaces, which in turn determines the position of paths and local nodes.

Architecture, Patterns, and Mathematics
Nexus Network Journal 1 (1999), pages 75-85.
The elimination of visual patterns in twentieth century architecture could be handicapping people's capacity for mathematical thinking, which works strictly in terms of patterns.

A Universal Rule for the Distribution of Sizes (co-authored with Bruce J. West)
Environment and Planning B 26 (1999), pages 909-923.
Most pleasing objects and designs obey an inverse power-law distribution in their subdivisions, which is a widely-observed relationship in both the natural and social sciences. Modernist design intentionally violates this rule. [Link is to a summary without equations -- complete version is available in Postscript and WORD]

Pavements as Embodiments of Meaning for a Fractal Mind (co-authored with Terry M. Mikiten and Hing-Sing Yu)
Nexus Network Journal 2 (2000), pages 61-72.
The mind establishes a connection with the environment by processing information. Pavements play a role in connecting human beings to surrounding structures by acting as a vehicle for conveying meaning. The design on pavements transfers meaning from our surroundings to our awareness.

A Pattern Measure (co-authored with Allen Klinger)
Environment and Planning B 27 (2000), pages 537-547.
A quantitative model for computing the organized complexity of arrays containing different symbols is applied to measure the degree to which people connect with a design. [An earlier version was entitled: Complexity and Visual Images].

The Structure of Pattern Languages
Architectural Research Quarterly 4 (2000), pages 149-161.
Patterns encapsulate information about recurring design solutions and human activities. Techniques for linking observed patterns validate a pattern language, and dismiss stylistic rules as arbitrary. Combining patterns on urban interfaces defines a new kind of livable region.

Hierarchical Cooperation in Architecture, and the Mathematical Necessity for Ornament
Journal of Architectural and Planning Research 17 (2000), pages 221-235
Integrated structures follow the theory of hierarchical systems, developed in computer science and biology, showing how ornament on the scales 1cm - 2m is necessary for architectural coherence.

La Nécéssité Mathématique de l'Ornement
Traduction française (contenant environs 50% du texte original) de Hierarchical Cooperation in Architecture, and the Mathematical Necessity for Ornament. Revue BénéFique (Lyon) 2 (2002), pages 151-174.
Il est établi que la conception architecturale doit être organisée hiérarchiquement. Pour ce faire, je présente une méthode et une formule dérivée, basées sur la biologie et l'informatique. [Disponible aussi en format WORD]

Complexity and Urban Coherence
Journal of Urban Design 5 (2000), pages 291-316
The theory of complex systems is applied to urban design. Coherence in city form comes from assembling components using intense local couplings together with long-range connections that reduce disorder.

Complessità e Coerenza Urbana
Traduzione parziale italiana di Complexity and Urban Coherence. Strumenti per la Pianificazione e Progettazione Sostenibile (2000), circa 10 pagine.
Applicazione della teoria dei sistemi complessi alla progettazione urbana. La coerenza della struttura urbana risulta dalle interconnessioni tra elementi diversi.

Ecology and the Fractal Mind in the New Architecture: A Conversation with Victor Padrón
RUDI -- Resource for Urban Design Information (2000), approximately 12 pages.
Our fractal mind mirrors Jungian archetypes that influence the design of man-made structures such as buildings, cities, and artworks. Because the underlying geometries are incompatible, the modernist anti-fractal attitude is antithetical to ecological thinking.

Fractals in the New Architecture
Portions of Ecology and the Fractal Mind in the New Architecture are published as an essay with new illustrations. Archimagazine <www.archimagazine.com> (2001), approximately 6 pages.
The urban fabric is characterized as a fractal. Complex structure is evident at every level of scale, and all the different scales cooperate to define a unified whole.

I Frattali Nella Nuova Architettura,
Porzione della conversazione Ecology and the Fractal Mind in the New Architecture tradotta in italiano con nuove illustrazioni. Archimagazine <www.archimagazine.com> (2001), circa 6 pagine.
Il tessuto urbano vivente mostra delle caratteristiche frattali: cioè, un complesso coerente con struttura definita ad ogni scala (con 7 figure).

Modularity and the Number of Design Choices (co-authored with Débora M. Tejada)
Nexus Network Journal 3 Number 1 (2001), pages 99-109.
We argue that modularity severely restricts the creativity of design, and support our argument by comparing the number of possible design choices in modular and non-modular design systems.

Remarks on a City's Composition
RUDI -- Resource for Urban Design Information (2001), approximately 14 pages.
A living city's components are connected according to the theory of complex hierarchical systems. The distribution of path lengths follows an inverse-power scaling law. The relationship with Christopher Alexander's work is outlined.

Kaupunki ei todellakaan ole puu
Finnish translation of Remarks on a City's Composition to be published in two parts, of which this is the first. Yhteiskuntasuunnittelu -- The Finnish Journal of Urban Studies 39 (2001), pages 68-76.

The End of Tall Buildings (co-authored with James Howard Kunstler)
PLANetizen <www.planetizen.com> (September 2001), approximately 5 pages.
We argue that the age of skyscrapers is at an end, and that this marks the beginning of the end of modernist typologies dominating urban form.
* COMMENTARY on this paper by other authors.

La fin des "bâtiments-tours" (avec James Howard Kunstler)
Traduction française de The End of Tall Buildings. Archicool <www.archicool.com> (Octobre 2001), circa 5 pages.
Nous sommes convaincus que l'âge des gratte-ciels touche à sa fin. Il faut maintenant considérer les immeubles de grande hauteur comme faisant partie d'une typologie périmée et d'une expérimentation ayant échoué.

The Future Of Cities: The Absurdity of Modernism -- Nikos Salingaros interviews Léon Krier
PLANetizen <www.planetizen.com> (November 2001), approximately 10 pages. Edited version reprinted in: Urban Land 61 (2002), January pages 12-15. Portions also published in Katarxis 02/01 with illustrations, approximately 8 pages.
The godfather of New Urbanism offers his perspective on the future of cities. The most beautiful cities which survive in the world today have all been conceived with buildings of between two and five floors -- the era of the utilitarian skyscraper is at an end.

Il Futuro delle Città: l'Assurdità del Modernismo -- Nikos Salingaros intervista Léon Krier
Traduzione italiana de The Future Of Cities: The Absurdity of Modernism. Archimagazine (Febbraio 2002), circa 9 pagine. Repubblicato in Temi di Stefano Borselli (2002).
Il "padre" del movimento New Urbanism offre la sua prospettiva sul futuro delle città. Le città più belle che sopravvivono oggi sono state concepite con edifici di altezza tra due e cinque piani.

Darwinian Processes and Memes in Architecture: A Memetic Theory of Modernism (co-authored with Terry M. Mikiten)
Journal of Memetics -- Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission 6 (2002), approximately 15 pages. Reprinted in: DATUTOP Journal of Architectural Theory 23 (2002), pages 117-139.
Architecture and urbanism in the twentieth century are driven by images, called "memes", that propagate in the minds of people. This process is analogous to the spread of viruses. By becoming ingrained, these visual images prevent the evolution of more adaptive design solutions.

Geometrical Fundamentalism (co-authored with Michael W. Mehaffy)
Plan Net Online Architectural Resources <www.plannet.com> (January 2002), approximately 15 pages.
We identify a geometrical disconnectedness as an integral part of modernist architecture and planning, and suggest that this is in part responsible for why the rest of the world resents the industrialized western nations. [Available in WORD].

Il Fondamentalismo Geometrico (con Michael W. Mehaffy)
Traduzione italiana de Geometrical Fundamentalism. Professione Architetto <www.professionearchitetto.it> (Febbraio 2002), circa 20 pagine. Versione migliorata pubblicata in Temi di Stefano Borselli (2002).
L'architettura modernista del XX secolo è stata guidata da un credo visivo (estetico!) basato sulle forme geometriche semplicistiche. Si ritiene che questo fenomeno crei un risentimento nelle nazioni non-industrializzate. [Disponibile anche in versione PDF].

The End of the Modern World (co-authored with Michael W. Mehaffy)
PLANetizen <www.planetizen.com> (January 2002), approximately 4 pages. Revised version published by Open Democracy <www.opendemocracy.net> (March 2002).
Part of the driving force in the recent terrorist attacks is traced to a rage in the third world against modernist planning. The West has to develop a new respect for traditional urban and design cultures. [Also available in WORD and in PDF].

NEW A Missed Learning Opportunity
PLANetizen <www.planetizen.com> (September 2002), approximately 3 pages.
The architectural implications of the September 11, 2001 tragedy. Have planners and architects overlooked the moral lesson to practice humane urban design?

Pattern Language and Interactive Design
To appear in: Poiesis Architecture (Toulouse). Approximately 8 pages
Following the work of Christopher Alexander, I use "Patterns" to aid in urban design. The method allows inhabitants of a particular neighborhood to participate in planning their own environment. [An earlier version was entitled: How the Pattern Language Defines a Geometry for Urban Interfaces].

Two Languages for Architecture
To appear in: "Architecture, Community, and Participation: Which Language?" Proceedings of the International Seminar, University of Rome III (2002). Approximately 8 pages.
Architecture and urbanism are guided by two distinct languages: a pattern language, and a form language. The pattern language contains rules for how human beings interact with built forms, whereas a form language consists of geometrical rules for putting matter together.

The Sensory Necessity for Ornament
To appear in Revue BénéFique (Lyon), approximately 6 pages.
Human beings connect with a given structure through the meaningful information it offers. Information is in turn encoded by color, detail, and curvature in a design, and its meaning depends on how those elements are organized.

 

WORKING PAPERS -- still being revised (link will be made live when paper is ready for distribution)

20C Architecture as a Cult.
Approximately 4 pages
Cult methods were applied to make modernism into a new cult; an extremely dangerous one because of its virulence and destructive aims. A key aspect was its absolute belief in the necessity of eliminating all pre-modernist architecture.

Anti-architecture and Religion.
Approximately 5 pages
Traditional religions created order as a geometrical expression of faith using physical materials. All of this ended abruptly in the twentieth century -- not only the creation of enlightened spaces, but also our attachment through architecture to a higher form of order in the universe.

Death, Life, and Libeskind (co-authored with Brian Hanson).
Approximately 10 pages
Daniel Libeskind successfully captured the geometry of death in his Berlin Jewish Museum. Now, however, he tries to apply the same geometry to buildings that ought to celebrate life, such as the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Charles Jencks and the New Paradigm in Architecture.
Approximately 12 pages
Charles Jencks has recently proclaimed "The New Paradigm in Architecture". He is in part correct, though strictly by coincidence, since his proposal is based on misunderstandings. The real new paradigm encompasses the innovative, humane architecture of Christopher Alexander, the traditional, humane architecture of Léon Krier, but does not include deconstructivist buildings.

Design methods, Emergence, and Collective Intelligence.
Approximately 18 pages
The two methods of adaptive top-down and bottom-up design are shown to be theoretically equivalent. Even though they differ drastically in their application, each one can help the other, and they may even be combined in a particular project.

An Information Architecture Approach to Understanding Cities (co-authored with L. Andrew Coward ) -- still being revised.
Approximately 20 pages
Cities are systems of informational architecture, in which high-level functionality separates the system into communicating modules. Information exchange in urban systems includes visual input from the environment, personal contact, telecommunications, as well as the movement of people. [Available in Postscript and WORD].

 

INTERVIEWS OF NIKOS SALINGAROS

Interview entitled "Mathematician Sums Up Laws of Architecture" appeared in the Road Runner magazine, November 1995.

Entretien (en français) avec Archicool, Paris, Janvier de 2001.

 

Thematic guide to publications

PATTERN LANGUAGE

MEMES

TALL BUILDINGS AND MODERNISM

COMPLEXITY MEASURES

INFORMATION AND THE MIND

FRACTALS AND SCALING

 

LETTERS AND BOOK REVIEWS

Book review of Christopher Alexander's "A Pattern Language" for amazon.com, May 1998.

Letter to the Editor of D Magazine criticizes Dallas for its architecture, October 1998.

This site was included in the Guest Section of Internet Architecture Zone for April 1997, and by Web Architecture Magazine for January 1998.

|||||

Salingaros Home Page